Quick Review — 10 Sentences — Summary

An ore is a mineral from which a metal can be economically extracted, whereas a mineral is merely any naturally occurring inorganic compound of a metal.
Ores are classified as oxide, sulphide, carbonate, or halide based on the anion of the metal compound, with key examples including haematite ( $Fe_{2}O_{3}$ ), zinc blende (ZnS), and cryolite ( $Na_{3}AlF_{6}$ ).
Concentration removes gangue using hydraulic washing for heavy oxide ores, magnetic separation for magnetic ores, froth flotation for sulphide ores, and leaching for gold and aluminium.
In froth flotation, pine oil is the collector that makes sulphide particles hydrophobic; NaCN acts as a depressant for ZnS, suppressing it so only PbS floats.
Calcination heats carbonate or hydrated ores in limited air to give metal oxide and $CO_{2}$ / $H_{2}O$ , while roasting heats sulphide ores in excess air to give metal oxide and $SO_{2}$ .
The Ellingham diagram plots $\Delta G$ ° of oxide formation versus temperature; a metal whose oxide line is lower can reduce the oxide of a metal whose line is higher.
The 2C + $O_{2}$ → 2CO line slopes downward because $\Delta S$ is positive, making carbon a progressively stronger reducing agent at higher temperatures — the basis of blast furnace smelting.
Aluminium is extracted by the Hall-Heroult process: $Al_{2}O_{3}$ dissolved in molten cryolite at ~950 °C is electrolysed, depositing Al at the cathode while carbon anodes are consumed.
Copper undergoes self-reduction in the Bessemer converter ( $Cu_{2}S$ reduces $Cu_{2}O$ to blister copper) and is then purified by electrolytic refining, with Au and Ag collecting in the anode mud.
Specialised refining methods are required for specific metals: zone refining for Si/Ge, the Mond carbonyl process for Ni, and the Van Arkel iodide method for Ti and Zr.