• summary_type: application
• word_count: 150

Galvanometer resistance (half-deflection method): connect G in series with high resistance R and a cell. Note deflection theta. Add shunt S in parallel with G to get theta/2. At half deflection: I doubles (total), but through G it halves. Analysis: GI_G = SI_S, and I_G' = I_G/2 while I_S' = I - I_G/2. Approximation: G ≈ S when R >> G (which is usually true since R ~ kohm, G ~ ohm). Exact formula: G = RS/(R-S). Specific heat by method of mixtures: m_sc_s(T_hot - T_final) = (m_wc_w + W)(T_final - T_cold), where W is the water equivalent of the calorimeter. Minimize heat loss: use insulated calorimeter, stir continuously, work quickly. The temperature should be measured just before and after mixing. Radiation corrections improve accuracy for precise measurements.