Chapter A: Electromagnetic Radiation (EM Theory)

Electromagnetic radiation travels at c = $3 \times 10^{8}$ m/s. It obeys c = νλ. Energy per photon: E = hν = hc/λ (Planck, h = $6.626 \times 10^{-34}$ J·s). Radiation types in order of increasing wavelength: gamma rays < X-rays < UV < Visible < Infrared < Microwaves < Radio waves. Higher frequency = shorter wavelength = higher energy per photon.

Chapter B: Photoelectric Effect

When light hits a metal surface: if ν ≥ ν_{0} (threshold), electrons are emitted with KE = h(ν − ν_{0}). The work function φ = hν_{0} is the minimum energy to eject an electron. Below ν_{0}: zero emission regardless of intensity. Above ν_{0}: KE depends only on ν; number of electrons depends only on intensity. Stopping potential $V_{0}$: e$V_{0}$ = KE_max = h(ν − ν_{0}). This proved light's particle (photon) nature.

Chapter C: Hydrogen Spectrum and Spectral Series

Rydberg formula: $\frac{1}{\lambda} = R_H\left(\frac{1}{n_1^2} - \frac{1}{n_2^2}\right)$ with R_H = $1.097 \times 10^{7}$ $m^{-1}$.

• Lyman (n_{1}=1): UV, first line 121.6 nm
• Balmer (n_{1}=2): Visible, first line 656.3 nm (red)
• Paschen (n_{1}=3): IR, first line 1875 nm
• Brackett (n_{1}=4): IR; Pfund (n_{1}=5): Far IR

Lines from level n = n(n−1)/2. Maximum wavelength in any series = first line (n_{2} = n_{1}+1). Minimum wavelength (series limit) = n_{2} → ∞.

Chapter D: Bohr's Atomic Model

Key formulas for hydrogen-like atoms (Z = atomic number): $E_n = -\frac{13.6Z^2}{n^2} \text{ eV} \quad r_n = \frac{0.529n^2}{Z} \text{ Å} \quad v_n = \frac{2.18 \times 10^6 Z}{n} \text{ m/s}$ Time period: T_n ∝ $n^{3}$/$Z^{2}$. Energy is negative (bound); more negative = more stable. Bohr model is valid for H, $He^{+}$, $Li^{2+}$, $Be^{3+}$ only. Angular momentum L = nh/2π.

Chapter E: de Broglie and Wave-Particle Duality

λ = h/mv. All particles have associated wavelengths. For an electron accelerated through V volts: λ = h/√(2meV). de Broglie's standing wave condition (nλ = 2πr) justifies Bohr's angular momentum postulate. The wave nature of electrons is demonstrated by electron diffraction.

Chapter F: Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

$\Delta x \cdot \Delta p \geq \frac{h}{4\pi}$ Cannot simultaneously know exact position and momentum. Orbital concept replaces orbit: region where probability ≥ 90%. The uncertainty in energy and time: $\Delta E$·$\Delta t$ ≥ h/4π.

Chapter G: Quantum Numbers

• n: principal (1,2,3,...); determines size and energy
• l: azimuthal (0 to n−1); s,p,d,f shapes; l<n always
• mₗ: magnetic (−l to +l); orientation; 2l+1 values
• mₛ: spin (+½ or −½)
• Capacity: shell = 2$n^{2}$; subshell = 2(2l+1); orbital = 2

Node formulas: Total = n−1; Angular = l; Radial = n−l−1.

Chapter H: Electronic Configuration Rules

Aufbau: fill in order of increasing (n+l); tie → lower n first. Pauli: no two electrons share all four QNs. Hund's: singly fill degenerate orbitals with parallel spins before pairing. Anomalous: Cr = [Ar]3$d^{5}$4$s^{1}$; Cu = [Ar]3$d^{10}$4$s^{1}$. Cation formation: remove 4s electrons first in transition metals.