Sucrose is non-reducing because both anomeric carbons (C1 of glucose, C2 of fructose) are locked in the $\alpha$-1,2 glycosidic bond — no free aldehyde or ketone can form.

A–T = 2 H-bonds; G–C = 3 H-bonds. Higher G–C content = higher DNA melting temperature ($T_m$).

Denaturation preserves primary structure. Peptide bonds are not broken; only 2°/3°/4° structures are disrupted by heat, pH, or chemicals.

Fat-soluble vitamins = ADEK. A (night blindness), D (rickets), E (infertility), K (delayed clotting). All other vitamins are water-soluble.

Cellulose has $\beta$-1,4 linkages; starch has $\alpha$-1,4 linkages. This single structural difference explains why humans can digest starch (amylase cleaves $\alpha$-linkages) but not cellulose (no cellulase).