| Metal | Ore | Concentration | Pre-treatment | Reduction | Refining |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fe | Fe2O3 | Magnetic/gravity | Direct | C/CO in blast furnace | Puddling |
| Cu | CuFeS2 | Froth flotation | Roasting | Self-reduction | Electrolytic |
| Al | Al2O3.2H2O | Leaching (Bayer) | Calcination | Electrolysis (Hall-Heroult) | Electrolytic (Hoopes) |
| Zn | ZnS | Froth flotation | Roasting | C reduction | Distillation/electrolytic |
| Ni | NiS | Froth flotation | Roasting | C/H2 reduction | Mond process |
| Au | Native/Ag2S | Cyanide leaching | — | Zn displacement | Electrolytic |
The extraction method correlates with the metal's position in the reactivity series: most reactive metals (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Al) require electrolysis; moderately reactive (Zn, Fe, Pb, Sn) use carbon reduction; least reactive (Cu, Ag, Au) use self-reduction or displacement.